- Hargreaves (1967) related the emergence of pupil subcultures to the processes of labelling and streaming within schools
- Colin Lacey’s (1970) study of Hightown Grammar school also showed how streaming can lead to the creation of anti-school subcultures
- Paul Willis (1997) in ‘Learning to Labour’ examined the effects of being placed in lower bands/streams.
- Willis found working-class pupils rebelled against their being labelled as failures by acting the fool in lessons in order to enhance their status/self-esteem in ways other than academic ones
- Note: though Willis adopted a Marxist approach he drew much from the interactionist perspective to compensate for the failings of the traditional Marxist model
- Mac an Ghaill (1994) identified 3 working-class male subcultures:
- Academic Achievers – formed pro-school subcultures
- New Enterprisers – formed pro-school subcultures
- Macho Lads – formed antischool subcultures
Female school subcultures
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